Chile peppers are one of the most valuable crops across the globe. Chile peppers belong to the genus Capsicum and family Solanaceae. Cultivated capsicum includes at least 25-30 species of chile pepper plants, five of which have been domesticated. They are grown for different purposes such as for vegetables, spices, condiments, sauces and pickles. Chile peppers may be processed into dry chilies for export purposes and long term usage. Chile peppers are tropical and subtropical in their growing habit and are of American origin.

Growing Chile Peppers: A detailed account of general growing practices for almost all types of chile peppers is given below:

Climate: Chile peppers are warm-season crops that are tropical to sub-tropical in their growing habit. Since they are tropical in habit, they need a warm, humid climate, and plenty of sunlight, preferably 6-8 hours of daylight. Chile peppers can tolerate extremes of climate better than other members of Solanaceae family such as tomato and brinjal. However, the plants cannot withstand long frosts and will die at freezing temperature. Chile plants prefer a temperature range of 20-250C. Chile peppers thrive well in areas having a moderate rainfall within the range of 60 to 120 cm. Excessive rainfall is not desirable as it causes defoliation and root rot. Chile pepper plants can be grown up to an altitude of 2000 meters from MSL (mean sea level).

Soil: Chile peppers can be grown in almost any soils but they prefer heavy, well-drained soils that are rich in organic matter with a soil pH of 4.3 to 8.7. Where the seasons are short, sandy and sandy loam soils are preferred for growing chile peppers. Chile peppers are not very sensitive to soil acidity, but a strongly acid soil should be limed to make it moderate or slightly acidic. The plants cannot tolerate highly saline/salty soils.

Propagation: Seeds are used for raising the seedlings. Seeds are sown at the onset of monsoons in the tropics. About 1-2 kg of seeds is required for sowing one hectare area, depending on the variety and growing conditions.

Site Preparation: Prepare the land by tilling, leveling and soil conditioning. Add loads of organic matter such as compost or FYM (farm yard manure) into the top soil to enrich the soil fertility. Farmyard manure at the rate of 250 quintals for a dry/rainfed crop and 500 quintals for an irrigated crop per hectare may be incorporated in the soil at the time of site preparation.

Planting: Seedlings are transplanted when they are about 4 to 8 weeks old or they reach 4 to 6 inches tall. Planting distance of 50cm to 1 m (row to row) and 30-45cm (plant to plant) may be followed. Transplanting should be done on a cool day to avoid the wilting of the newly transplanted seedlings.

Manuring: Compound fertilizer 10-10-10 @2-3 lbs. /100 square feet may be applied as a standard dose. For large crops, 350 kg of ammonium sulphate, 175 kg of single superphosphate and 100 kg of potassium sulphate per hectare is recommended. Full doses of phosphate and potash and a half dose of nitrogen are to be applied at the time of transplanting and the rest of nitrogen is applied as top-dressing. Use of a weak starter solution made of ammonium sulphate and potassium nitrate in the ratio of 2:1 at the rate of 1:36 kg in 270 litres of water at the time of transplanting proves beneficial.

Watering: Soil should always be kept moist and the maintenance of uniform soil moisture is essential to prevent blossom rot and fruit drop. Frequent and regular watering is recommended during summers and when there is insufficient rainfall. Growing plants should never be allowed to wilt. Slow and deep watering is recommended. During a growing season, the crop may need 8 to 9 irrigations in total, depending on rainfall, soil type, humidity and prevailing atmospheric temperature.

Crop Maturity: In most of the chile peppers, flowering begins 3 months (120 days) after transplanting. Hot and dry weather is favored for fruit ripening. Chile fruits are considered as vegetables. However, botanically chile fruits are berries.

Harvesting and Yield: First crop can be harvested 10 to 12 weeks (approx. 3 months) after transplanting. The stage of maturity at which chile pods are picked depends on the type and purpose for which they are grown. Chile fruits which are used for vegetable purposes are generally handpicked while they are still green but full-grown. Those which are used for pickles are handpicked either green or ripe. Chile peppers used for drying are picked red when fully ripe. In case of a rainfed crop the yield of dry chile peppers is 500 to 1000 kg per hectare and that of an irrigated crop is 1500 to 2500 kg per hectare. Generally the yield of fresh green chile pods is 3-4 times higher than that of dry chile pods. The average yield of seed per hectare varies from 50 to 80 kg.

Drying of Chile Peppers: Both sun drying/solar drying and artificial drying are used for drying chile fruits. Generally, freshly harvested chile peppers are allowed to dry in the sun for processing purposes. Artificial drying is also used if solar drying is not possible.

Post Harvest Management in Chile Peppers: Major maturity determinants are fruit size, firmness, and color of the fruits. Fruit size of mature green chile peppers should be medium to large and fruits should be firm with bright green colour and fresh appearance.

For colored chilies and red chilies, the chile peppers should have minimum 50% coloration to achieve complete color development.

Major quality indices considered for chile peppers are, uniform shape, size and color typical of variety. Chile fruits should be firm to touch and free from defects such as cracks, decay, and sun burn. Optimum storage at 7.5°C (45°F) with more than 95% RH (relative humidity) provides maximum shelf-life up to 3-5 weeks.

Post Harvest Physiological Disorders: Abiotic disorders of chile peppers include blossom end rot, drowning and edema, salt injury, sunburn, vivipary and wind injury.

A detailed account of these disorders is given below:

  • Blossom end rot: This disorder occurs as a slight discoloration or a severe dark sunken lesion at or near the blossom end; it is caused by temporary insufficiencies of calcium due to water stress and may occur under high temperature conditions when the peppers are rapidly growing.
  • Chilling injury: Symptoms of chilling injury include surface pitting, water-soaked areas, decay (especially Alternaria), and discoloration of the seed cavity

Post Harvest Pathological Disorders: Major post harvest pathological disorders are decay and rot of the chile fruits. Common decay causing organisms are a group of fungi such as Botrytis spp. and Alternaria spp. In addition to this, soft rots of fruits that are of fungal and bacterial origin are also seen during storage. A detailed account of these pathological disorders is given below:

  • Botrytis or Grey Mold Decay: It is a common decay-causing organism on chile peppers; field sanitation and prevention of wounds on the fruit help reduce its incidence. Botrytis will grow well at the recommended storage temperatures. Hot water dips of peppers can effectively control botrytis rot (55°C or 130°F hot water for 4 minutes) without causing fruit injury.
  • Bacterial Soft Rot: Soft rotting areas can be caused by several bacteria which attack damaged tissue; soft rots can also be common on washed or hydrocooled chile peppers where water sanitation was deficient

Other Common Postharvest Defects in Chile Peppers: Mechanical damage (crushing, stem punctures, scrapes, etc.) is common on chile peppers; physical injury not only detracts from the visual quality of the chile peppers but also causes increased weight loss and decay.

Disease and Pest Management in Chile Peppers

Chile pepper plants are attacked by a number of pests and insects as well as by diseases during various phases of their growth cycle. Major insect-pests of chile peppers are aphids, thrips, whiteflies, pepper maggots, pepper weevils, flea beetles, and mites. Chile pepper plants are susceptible to various fungal, viral, and bacterial diseases also. The plants are also prone to root knot nematodes attack. A detailed account of various disease-pest management strategies for chile pepper plants is given below:

Insect Pest Management in Chile Pepper Plants

Thrips and Aphids: Thrips are small, slender-looking, sucking insects that may be white, yellow, brown or black in colour. They attack tender leaves and shoots and the affected leaves become stunted and distorted in appearance and curl upwards. Aphids are also small sucking insects that suck cell sap from tender foliage and plants. Both thrips and aphids may be controlled by using natural predators like ladybugs or by planting trap crops like marigolds. Spraying the plants with organic pesticides such as diluted soap solution or neem emulsion or organic pyrethrum-based pesticides may control these insects up to a great extent. In case of severe infestations, a standard chemical insecticide may be used; however it is not advised due to chemical-residue risks.

Flea Beetles, Pepper Weevils, and Pepper Maggots: Flea beetles are about 2mm long, shiny black insects and feed on the seedlings and young plants leaving holes in them. Pepper weevils are about 3mm long black insects and feed on the young and mature plants. Pepper maggots are whitish yellow 1cm long maggots that feed on the core of the fruits. In case of milder infestations, hand picking of the insects and destroying them may be advised. Spraying the plants with organic pesticides such as diluted soap solution or neem emulsion or organic pyrethrum-based pesticides may control these insects up to a great extent. In case of severe infestations, a standard chemical insecticide may be used; however it is not advised due to chemical-residue risks.

Spider Mites: Spider mites are very small, pale yellow insects that feed on the underside of leaves and the infected leaves gradually curl downwards. In severe infestations, leaves become speckled with a webby appearance. Spraying plants with a strong flow of water may get rid of these insects up to some extent. In case of severe infestations, a standard chemical insecticide may be used; however it is not advised due to chemical-residue risks.

White Flies: Whiteflies are tiny insects of 1.5mm long that suck cell sap from the leaves. Eventually the affected leaves turn yellow and fall down. Chemical control of whiteflies is difficult as they have fast lifecycles. So, in order to eliminate them, frequent spraying of chemicals may be necessary which may, in turn, lead to chemical residue risks. The best control is possible by following good cultural practices, such as removing and destroying infected plants, and field sanitation and by using color traps or by using organic pesticidal solutions such as spraying soap solution, neem emulsions, or pyrethrum-based insecticides.

Root Knot Nematodes: Root Knot Nematodes affect plant roots and subsequently, result in gall formation in the roots. The affected plants are unable to absorb water and vital plant nutrients from the soil and eventually, they wilt and die. Root knot nematodes are a common problem in sandy soils and therefore adding organic matter to sandy soils to increase its fertility and water-retention ability may reduce the problem up to some extent. Crop rotation may also be tried to reduce root knot nematode problem. So far the best control measure for root knot nematodes is to plant nematode-resistant varieties of chile peppers.

Disease Management in Chile Pepper Plants

Fusarium Wilt: Fusarium wilt is a soil-borne fungal disease and is characterised by wilting of the plant. The disease first affects the leaves and the affected leaves curl upward and inward, and become yellow and finally fall off from the plant. Since it is a soil-borne disease, the best control measures include soil treatment with a recommended fungicide or soil sterilization before planting the crop. Planting chile pepper varieties that are resistant to Fusarium wilt disease may also be tried. Spraying the soil with copper fungicides like Bordeaux mixture may prevent the spread of the disease up to a great extent.

Cercospora Leaf Spot: Cercospora Leaf Spot (Frog Eye) is a seed-borne fungal disease caused by Cercospora capsici. Major symptom is small brown circular, watery leaf lesions followed by leaf drop. Control measures include use of disease-free seeds and planting materials, and adoption of best cultural practices such as crop rotation and regular field sanitation. In case of severe infestations, a standard chemical fungicide may be used; however it is not advised due to chemical-residue risks.

Grey Mold: Grey Mold is a fungal disease caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea. It affects young shoots and flowers and affected plant parts collapse completely and a mass of grey-coloured fungal spores appear on the surface of the dead plant parts. The disease is prevalent in warm, humid climate. Proper cultural practices that ensure proper aeration of the plants may control the disease up to some extent. In case of severe infestations, a standard chemical fungicide may be used; however it is not advised due to chemical-residue risks.

Damping off: Damping-off is a fungal disease caused by a group of fungi including Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia spp. and Fusarium spp. and it mainly affects seedlings and young plants. Using poor quality infested seeds, improper planting depth, high salt concentrations in the soil, poor soil drainage resulting in damp, wet seed beds and fields, and nutrient deficiencies in the soil are some of the reasons for the prevalence of damping off disease. Major symptoms include collapse of the seedlings and root rot of the seedlings and young plants. Best control measures include using high quality, pathogen-free seeds and planting materials, providing good soil drainage, and maintaining proper soil pH levels. Spraying of the soil with a copper based fungicide such as Bordeaux mixture may reduce the incidences of damping off disease up to a great extent.

Verticillium Wilt: Verticillium Wilt is a soil-borne fungal disease caused by Verticillium dahliae. The disease may occur at any growth stage of the plants. Major symptoms include yellowing of leaves and stunted growth. Since the disease is soil-borne, the best control measures include soil sterilization before planting the crop and adopting cultural practices such as crop rotation and field sanitation.

White Mold: White Mold is a soil-borne fungal disease caused by the fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. The affected plant parts become dark green or brown in colour and water-soaked in appearance. Eventually a white, fluffy mold growth appears on the plants and the plant eventually rots and dies. Best control measures include soil sterilization before planting the crop, providing good soil drainage, observing proper plant spacing, and adopting good cultural practices such as crop rotation, field sanitation, and removal of all infected plants as soon as possible.

Powdery Mildew: Powdery Mildew is a fungal disease caused by the fungus Leveillula taurica. It is prevalent in warm, humid climate and it primarily affects older leaves just before or at fruit set. Symptoms include appearance of white, powdery mass of fungal spores on the entire lower leaf surface and the affected leaves eventually fall off, leaving fruits susceptible to sunscald. Regular dusting with sulphur and potassium bicarbonate may control the disease up to some extent.

Phytophthora Blight: Phytophthora Blight is also known as Chile Wilt. It is a fungal disease caused by a water-borne fungus Phytophthora capsici. The disease is prevalent in warm, humid climate and in wet waterlogged areas. Major symptoms include leaf blight, fruit rot, and root rot and the affected plants wilt and die in due course of time. Best control measures include avoid overwatering plants and providing proper soil drainage. Spraying of the soil with a copper based fungicide such as Bordeaux mixture may reduce the incidences of this fungal disease up to a great extent.

Anthracnose: Anthracnose is a fungal disease caused by the fungi Colletotrichum piperatum and C. capsici. The disease is prevalent in warm and humid climate and mainly affects the fruits of the chile pepper plants. Sunken, circular spots of 2-3 cm diameter appear on affected fruits and in severe cases, a mass of pink or yellow fungal spores appear on fruits. Best control measures include use of disease-free seeds and seed treatment with a recommended fungicide before sowing. Crop rotation and field sanitation may help prevent the spread of the disease up to a great extent.

Bacterial Leaf Spot: Bacterial Leaf Spot is a very serious, seed-borne bacterial disease of chile peppers. It is caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria. Major symptoms include appearance of water soaked areas or spots (with black centres and yellow halos) on leaves. The infected leaves turn yellow and drop off from the plant. Best control measures include the use of disease-free seeds and planting materials and cultural practices such as crop rotation and field sanitation. Spraying the plants with a copper-based fungicide such as Bordeaux mixture may help prevent the disease up to great extent.

Bacterial Soft Rot: Bacterial Soft Rot is a bacterial disease caused by Erwinia carotovora pv carotovora. This disease affects the fruits and the internal tissue of the affected fruits softens and then turns into a foul-smelling watery mass. The disease mainly affects the fruits injured by insects and hence controlling insects may prevent the spread of the disease up to a great extent.

Bacterial Wilt: Bacterial Wilt is a seed-borne, bacterial disease caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum. Leaves of the affected plant wilt first and eventually the entire plant wilt and die. The best control measures include the use of disease-free seeds and planting materials and adopting the cultural practices such as crop rotation and removal of the diseased plants from the field as soon as possible.

Viral Diseases of Chile Pepper Plants: Major viral diseases of the chile pepper plants are:

  1. Pepper Mosaic & Pepper Mottle Virus (PeMV)
  2. Tobacco Etch Virus (TEV)
  3. Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)

Pepper Mosaic & Pepper Mottle Virus (PeMV): Pepper Mosaic & Pepper Mottle Virus (PeMV) is a major viral disease of the chile pepper plants. The disease is spread by vectors such as aphids and other insects that infest chile pepper plants. Major symptoms include stunted plants, malformed fruits, and poor crop yield. Best control measures include controlling vectors such as aphids and other insects, observing good field sanitation practises, planting virus-resistant varieties and removal of the infected plants as soon as possible. However, complete control of viral diseases is often not possible.

Tobacco Etch Virus (TEV): Tobacco Etch Virus (TEV) is a major viral disease of the chile pepper plants. The disease is spread by vectors such as aphids and other insects that infest chile pepper plants. Major symptoms include dark green vein bands, malformed leaves, and stunted plant growth; the affected plants eventually wilt and die. Tabasco peppers are susceptible to TEV disease. Best control measures include controlling vectors such as aphids and other insects, observing good field sanitation practises, planting virus-resistant varieties and removal of the infected plants as soon as possible. However, complete control of viral diseases is often not possible.

Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV): Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) is a highly infectious viral disease of the chile pepper plants. The disease is spread by vectors such as aphids and other insects that infest chile pepper plants. Major symptoms include curling leaves, mottled fruits, stunted plant growth and excessive leaf drop. Best control measures include controlling vectors such as aphids and other insects, observing good field sanitation practises, planting virus-resistant varieties and removal of the infected plants as soon as possible. However, complete control of viral diseases is often not possible.

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